Projects, Life Cycles, and Processes
Date: Feb 25, 2026
Sample Chapter is provided courtesy of Pearson.
Task 1-1: Demonstrate an Understanding of the Various Project Life Cycles and Processes
Key Concepts
■ Project Life Cycle: A series of phases through which a project develops, from initiation to completion
■ Phases: Refers to a collection of activities within a project. Each project phase is goal-oriented and ends at a milestone
■ Project Value: Role of projects, programs, and portfolios in delivering organizational value
■ Project Types: Understanding the distinction between projects and operations
■ Development Approaches: The differences between predictive and adaptive methodologies in project execution
■ Project Parameters: The role of issues, risks, assumptions, and constraints in shaping project planning and execution
■ Project Scope: The defined boundaries and deliverables that determine project success
■ Project Ethics: Core principles of responsibility, respect, fairness, and honesty in project management
Distinguish Between a Project, a Program, and a Portfolio
■ Project: A temporary effort that delivers a unique outcome. Projects also generally follow a life cycle that goes through a series of phases, regardless of the project development approach that is used (predictive, adaptive, or hybrid).
■ Program: Related projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities that are managed in a coordinated manner to obtain benefits not available from their individual management. A project may or may not be part of a program, but a program will always have projects.
■ Portfolio: Projects, programs, subsidiary portfolios, and operations managed as a group to achieve strategic objectives.
Figure 1-1 illustrates two distinct portfolios within an organization committed to sustainability leadership. Portfolio A focuses on zero waste and includes two programs, while Portfolio B aims to reduce energy consumption and comprises one program and one standalone project.
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Figure 1-1 The Relationship Among Portfolios, Programs, and Projects
Distinguish Between a Project and Operations
To understand the difference between projects and operations, you need to understand the charactericts of each. As stated previously, a project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result with a defined start and end date.
■ Temporary: Has a defined start and end date
■ Unique Outcome: Produces a unique product, service, or result
■ Life Cycle: Includes phases such as initiation, planning, execution, monitoring, and closing
■ Purpose: Designed to achieve specific goals and objectives
Examples of projects include developing a new smartphone app, constructing a building, and launching a marketing campaign.
Operations are ongoing and repetitive activities segmented into separately managed modules or tasks that can be individually sequenced, tracked, and measured.
■ Continuous: Ongoing with no defined end date.
■ Repetitive: Involves repetitive tasks to maintain and sustain business functions.
■ Stability: Aimed at sustaining and supporting the business.
■ Purpose: To ensure that the business continues to function efficiently and effectively.
Examples of operations include manufacturing, customer service, and maintenance of infrastructure.
Distinguish Between Predictive and Adaptive Approaches
The predictive development approach is a step-by-step approach taken when a project and product requirements can be fully defined, collected, and analyzed at the start of the project. For example, construction projects like building a bridge employ this approach.
The adaptive development approach is a type of project life cycle, or methodology, that values responding to change over following a set plan. Adaptive methodologies seek solutions that deliver maximum value to the customer. When building a new website, for example, this approach is used when requirements are subject to high uncertainty and volatility and are likely to change throughout a project.
Predictive and adaptive approaches are often referred to by different terms, such as:
■ Predictive: Waterfall, linear, structured, plan based, stable, traditional
■ Adaptive: Agile, iterative, incremental, spiral, extreme, evolutionary
Although it will be covered in more depth when we get to the Domain 2 section, let’s briefly look at the project process groups and phases.
Project Process Groups
Project process groups are fundamental stages that provide a structured project management framework. These groups, defined by the Project Management Institute (PMI), include five core processes: Initiating, Planning, Executing, Monitoring and Controlling, and Closing.
■ Initiating sets the stage for the project by defining its purpose, scope, and objectives and securing authorization to proceed.
■ Planning involves developing detailed plans to achieve project goals, including scheduling, budgeting, risk management, and resource allocation.
■ Executing focuses on coordinating people and resources to accomplish the project plan and achieve objectives.
■ Monitoring and Controlling tracks project progress to ensure alignment with the plan, making necessary adjustments to keep the project on course.
■ Closing marks the completion of the project and the formal closing of the project or project phase.
Project Phases or Stages
Project phases or stages are distinct segments of a project life cycle, often with defined deliverables and reviews at their conclusion. We can use A, B, C, D, E, and F to visualize a project going through phases such as:
Aspire phase: Ends with project idea or solution.
Business Analysis: A business analyst might work with the project sponsor on a business case, usually a “Go-No-Go” decision point (gate) for the project.
Create a Charter: The sponsor issues project charter and names a project manager.
Develop Plans: The project manager creates a project scope statement and develops comprehensive plans.
Execute Plan: The project team executes the project.
Finish project: The project manager closes the project.
Although the charter is typically fixed, Figure 1-2 demonstrates the iterative nature of project planning and execution until the project is finished.
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Figure 1-2 A Typical Project Life Cycle
A decision to determine whether a project should be continued or terminated is called a stage gate (see Figure 1-3). Stage gates can occur at any point in a project but they are typically at the end of a major phase.
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Figure 1-3 Life Cycle with Stage-Gate Checkpoints
Distinguish Between Issues, Risks, Assumptions, and Constraints
Issues are conditions that could affect project objectives. They are often linked to risks; for instance, if a risk involving a supplier materializes—like failing to deliver a product as promised—it becomes an issue. These issues are managed and tracked by the project manager using an “issue log”. This log helps ensure that issues are addressed continually until resolved.
Risks are uncertain events that can positively or negatively impact project objectives. Negative risks or threats might cause project timeline, quality, or budget issues. For example, the risk of a supplier being acquired could jeopardize the supply chain if they are a sole provider. Conversely, positive risks are opportunities for the project manager to capitalize on. Risks should be evaluated for their impact and severity and prioritized accordingly.
Assumptions are factors that are considered to be true, real, or certain for project planning purposes. High-level assumptions are documented in the project charter, while detailed assumptions are recorded in the project scope statement and assumption log. Each assumption should be validated throughout the project lifecycle because they often link to project constraints and can impact project success if proven false.
An assumption is a factor accepted as true for project planning without direct proof. For example, assuming that key resources will be available throughout the project creates conditions that influence how the project is planned and executed. These factors must be documented, tracked, and validated because they can significantly impact project success if proven incorrect.
Constraints are external factors that limit the ability to plan. Constraints and assumptions are closely linked. They form a boundary layer, or limit on time, cost, scope, or quality. A fixed budget for a project is a constraint that limits the resources that can be allocated as shown in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1 Examples of Issues, Risks, Assumptions, and Constraints
Term |
Example |
|---|---|
Issue |
A team member falls ill and is unavailable for two weeks. |
Risk |
In a construction project, unexpected weather conditions could delay the timeline and increase costs. |
Assumption |
The team developing a smartphone app assumes that no significant hardware changes will occur after the app’s launch. |
Constraint |
Tax software is being developed with a strict constraint that it must be completed three months before the start of the fiscal tax year. |
Review/Critique Project Scope
The project scope outlines all the work required to complete the project successfully.
It includes attributes such as:
■ Objectives: What the project aims to achieve
■ Deliverables: The specific outputs or products the project will produce
■ Tasks and Activities: The work that needs to be done to create the deliverables
■ Boundaries: What is included and excluded from the project scope
■ Stakeholders: The individuals or groups involved in or affected by the project
■ Constraints: Limitations such as budget, time, and resources
■ Assumptions: Conditions assumed to be true for planning purposes
Review/critique the following points:
■ Clarity and Completeness: Ensure objectives are SMART and deliverables align with them
■ Boundaries and Limitations: Confirm inclusions/exclusions and assess constraints
■ Assumptions and Dependencies: Review assumptions and outline dependencies
■ Stakeholder Alignment: Verify stakeholder engagement and approval
■ Risk Identification: Identify potential risks and plan mitigation
■ Resource Allocation: Ensure resources are sufficient and feasible
■ Documentation and Accessibility: Ensure the scope document is clear, is accessible, and has a robust change management process
Apply the Project Management Code of Ethics to Scenarios
Project managers are expected to maintain high ethical standards as they lead projects and teams. The following tenets form the foundation of the PMI Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct, which provides detailed guidelines for ethical behavior in project management. For the complete Code of Ethics and additional resources, visit PMI.org.
Table 1-2 PMI Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct
Tenet |
Description |
|---|---|
Responsibility |
Responsibility is our duty to take ownership of the decisions we make or fail to make, the actions we take or fail to take, and the consequences that result. We should promise only what we can deliver, and we should deliver on what we promise. |
Respect |
Respect is our duty to show a high regard for ourselves, others, and the resources entrusted to us. Resources entrusted to us may include people, money, reputation, the safety of others, and natural or environmental resources. An environment of respect engenders trust, confidence, and performance excellence by fostering cooperation—an environment where diverse perspectives and views are encouraged and valued. |
Fairness |
Fairness is our duty to make decisions and act impartially and objectively. Our conduct must be free from competing self-interest, prejudice, and favoritism. In fact, we should avoid even the appearance of a conflict of interest. |
Honesty |
Honesty is our duty to understand the truth and act in a truthful manner both in our communications and in our conduct. Base decisions on facts, and be transparent with the facts about your decisions. |
Let us illustrate the tenets through scenarios that show how adhering to ethical principles can enhance trust and integrity in professional settings.
Scenario 1: Responsibility
A project manager at a software development company is facing unexpected technical issues that could delay a software update’s launch. The project manager proactively informs stakeholders, offers solutions, and revises the timeline.
Scenario 2: Respect
A team leader in a multinational corporation is working with a team that is culturally diverse with varied skill levels. The leader fosters an inclusive environment where all members can contribute, ensuring efficient use of resources like budget and equipment.
Scenario 3: Fairness
An HR manager handling promotions find that among the candidates for promotion is a close friend. The HR manager applies the same objective criteria to all candidates, including their friend, and discloses their personal connection to maintain transparency.
Scenario 4: Honesty
A project leader is reporting cost and schedule variance when the report suddenly shows a significant variance. The project leader presents the results accurately, explains the causes factually, and outlines the corrective measures.
Explain How a Project Can Be a Vehicle for Change
Projects serve as vehicles for change by aligning with strategic organizational goals to drive transformation and improvement. Employing projects has numerous advantages, as they effectively shape and guide an organization’s growth and adaptation to new challenges and opportunities.
They foster innovation by introducing new technologies and processes, which can shift organizational culture and enhance team collaboration. Projects also facilitate skill development, equipping employees with new competencies and contributing to the organization’s long-term capabilities. Additionally, they can streamline existing processes for greater efficiency and ensure compliance with evolving industry standards or regulations.
Additional Topics Related to This Chapter
There are some additional topics that do not appear explicitely in the ECO, but are things you should be familiar with on the exam. The first is Project Performance Domains. There are eight Project Performance Domains: Stakeholder, Team, Development Approach & Life Cycle, Planning, Project Work, Delivery, Measurement, Uncertainty (see Figure 1-4).
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Figure 1-4 Project Performance Domains
These domains represent the critical areas of focus that work together throughout a project’s life cycle. Unlike process groups, which follow a sequential flow, these domains operate simultaneously and interact continuously throughout the project. They provide a comprehensive framework for delivering value, whether using predictive, adaptive, or hybrid approaches.
Finally, we must understand the various roles that successful project managers play in leading projects and teams. A project manager must fulfill multiple roles to effectively lead projects and teams. These roles go beyond traditional management tasks and require a combination of leadership, technical, and interpersonal skills. Figure 1-5 illustrates the key roles that project managers must balance to achieve project success and maintain team effectiveness.
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Figure 1-5 Roles of a Successful Project Manager
Domain 1, Task 1 Summary
Be sure you know the following concepts before you take the exam:
Project Types and Definitions
■ Projects: Temporary efforts with unique outcomes
■ Programs: Related projects managed together for benefits
■ Portfolio: Projects and programs managed for strategic objectives
■ Operations: Ongoing, repetitive business activities
Development Approaches
■ Predictive: Step-by-step, fully defined requirements (e.g., construction)
■ Adaptive: Flexible, changing requirements (e.g., software development)
Project Process Groups
■ Initiating: Define purpose and authorization
■ Planning: Develop detailed plans
■ Executing: Coordinate resources and work
■ Monitoring and Controlling: Track progress
■ Closing: Complete and formalize end
Project Parameters
■ Issues: Current problems affecting objectives
■ Risks: Uncertain future events
■ Assumptions: Factors considered true without proof
■ Constraints: External limiting factors
Project Scope Components
■ Objectives: Host end-of-year celebration for 200 students with $5000 budget
■ Deliverables: 4-hour evening event with food, music, and entertainment
■ Tasks/Activities: Venue booking, catering arrangements, and DJ hiring
■ Boundaries: School gymnasium venue, no external guests allowed, no alcohol
■ Stakeholders: Students, parents, teachers, administration, vendors
■ Constraints: Maximum budget $5000, must end by 10 PM, venue capacity 250
■ Assumptions: Students will attend, venue will be available, DJ has equipment
Risk vs. Issue
■ Risk: Underage drinking might occur.
■ Issue: Student was caught attempting to bring alcohol into venue.
Ethics Tenets
■ Responsibility: Own decisions and consequences
■ Respect: Show regard for people and resources
■ Fairness: Act impartially and objectively
■ Honesty: Communicate and act truthfully